Some of the key factors that contributed to the evolution and consolidation of an Islamic identity immediately following the death of Mohammad were the almost immediate takeover of the Persian and Byzantine empires surrounding the Arabian Peninsula, the increasing conflict between the Sunnis and the Shiite's points of view, and the differing philosophies of the Umayyads and Abbasids.

Within two generations of Mohammad's death the followers of Islam had extinguished the entire Persian empire as well as all of the mid-eastern provinces of the Byzantine empire. This advance secured Islam's place in history as it allowed for a vast territory to be greatly exposed and controlled by the caliphs. Had the Islamic tradition never left the hijaz the weak state may have been overrun by superior forces, eliminating the faith altogether. That was not the case; the growth of a strong unified state brought together by a respect for the eloquence of the Arabic language and a strong sense of Arab identity became the cornerstone for the Islamic takeover of large territories. As Ibn Khaldun noted, once tribal solidarity combined with religious zeal the force became almost invincible. This was certainly the case as the Islamic territory vastly grew throughout the years after Mohammad's death.

A second key factor to the evolution of Islam was the question of who would be Mohammad's successor and what would be their role. Two separate views began to take shape and would solidify in the centuries following Mohammad's death.

The first of these two viewpoints was the belief of the Sunnis. They felt that religious authority rested not with any particular individual but with the community as a whole. The Sunnis believed that since god did not appoint a religious successor to Mohammad there should not be one. Rather, what the community agrees on would become norm as it was thought that when a group settles a matter it is mostly correct where an individual leader can be biased and not have the community as a whole in mind. The Sunnis did however think a political leader was necessary to take care of the state's affairs in relation to surrounding political bodies.

Contrastingly was the view of the Shiite's. They argued that Mohammad did indeed have a successor and that person was Ali. Mohammad had grown up in his household and also would not neglect to appoint a successor as they were centrally important to the faith. Shiite's believed that the successor should not only have political power, but also religious authority as well. These two fundamentally differing viewpoints greatly changed the evolving Islamic identity forming after Mohammad's death.

Another force that shaped the face of Islam from 661 to 750 CE was the ruling Umayyads. They were successful at running the empire because there were tight family and tribal bonds between the ruling class that made them look after common interests. The Umayyads consolidated the state and made possible a political framework to make the formation of Islam more closely tied to the political system. The Umayyad belief was Arab ethnic domination. They had a preconception of what the caliphate should look like and wanted to stay separated from all conquered peoples. This made those conquered by the Umayyads second class citizens not on the same level as those from the Umayyan tribe. Much dissatisfaction with the Umayyads resulted as there was no indication in the Qur'an or through Mohammad that Islam should be a religion of only Arabs. The Qur'an allowed for much more equality than the Umayyads were allowing.

The frustration with the Umayyads led to the Abbasids taking control in the year 750 until 1258 CE. The Abbasids wanted to create a more cosmopolitan framework for Islam. This would allow many more to participate in the religion and invited many non-Arab scholars to emerge. During this era some of the most distinct institutions of Islam would begin to develop. Schools of law, the beginnings of sustained relations between Muslim and non-Muslim communities, and the translation of all significant literature and scientific pieces to Arabic took place during the Abbasid period.

By the year 850 CE the Islamic tradition had grown so strong it no longer could be controlled by a political system. It had moved into public space and transcended any political lines. Abbasid leaders from this point on had political power and little to no power over the Islamic faith. This separation was shown as the state began to become weaker and weaker while Islam itself was thriving independently. This can be attributed to the fact that there were many "local" Islams that suited the needs of particular peoples in certain areas. The basic tenants and beliefs of Islam remained constant, such as belief in the Qur'an and Mohammad, however more variances became apparent from region to region as Islam continued evolving.

I would rank the Umayyads initial concern with political expansion and structure as the most important factor of Islam's development. Even though their philosophies were not considered fair, their continued political success gave Islam the time it needed to grow and evolve in a structured environment until it had the chance to sustain itself by around 850 CE. I believe if it were not for the Umayyads' political prowess the evolution of Islam would greatly differ from that known of today.



Patrick Flaherty

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